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It has been the design of Jehovah, from the commencement of the world, and is his purpose now, to regulate the affairs of the world in his own time; to stand as head of the universe, and take the reigns [sic] of government into his own hand. When that is done judgment will be administered in righteousness; anarchy and confusion will be destroyed, and "nations will learn war no more."

The world has had a fair trial for six thousand years; the Lord will try the seventh thousand himself; "he whose right it is will possess the kingdom, and reign until he has put all things under his feet."
Joseph Smith, 1842 [1]

 

I.  Introduction

            The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints teaches that the resurrected Christ will come again and rule as King over the whole earth. While some religions in the Judeo-Christian tradition preach of an allegorical or figurative millennium, LDS theology affirms that Christ will return for a literal millennial reign of peace. [2] The Articles of Faith proclaim the belief that Christ will govern the earth personally. [3] Early Church leaders spoke often of Christ's literal and universal kingdom. [4] Accepting the reality of this ultimate millennial reign, this article examines the teachings of early Church leaders and LDS scripture to theorize about the possible future of international law. It is a thought experiment concerning the implications of statements describing the world in the last days and Christ's millennial government.

            It is important to emphasize that, as a thought experiment, this article is not a doctrinal or authoritative statement of LDS theology. It is speculation based on what early Church leaders believed to be the nature of the political system after the Second Coming of Jesus Christ. The Lord's authorized revelators have not offered interpretive views on these subjects for over a century. Modern revelation—if and when it comes—may modify to a greater or lesser extent the understandings that early Church leaders held in their day.

            With that in mind, this article asserts that, based on how early Church leaders described the last days, the current international legal system would not likely survive the prophesied turmoil and destruction. Among various judgments and disasters, wars and wickedness in the last days would seem to cause political States to fail. It is possible that widespread State failure would bring about the end of significant sources and substantive areas of international law. When Christ ushers in His millennial reign, it would appear that the fully-established kingdom of God would completely replace whatever remained of the international legal system. As early Church leaders described their vision of Christ's millennial rule, it seems that a political structure within that kingdom would legislate and execute the law in righteousness as Christ governs the earth for a thousand years of peace.

            For the purposes of this article, discussion has been divided into three major sections. The first section theorizes about the fall of the State through scriptures and teachings relating to the future of man's governments. It also discusses some effects of State failure and a perspective on the role of the city of Zion. The second section theorizes about the future of various sources and substantive areas of international law. After these sections describe the possible fall of the current international legal system, the final section examines statements by early Church leaders about their vision of the political structure of Christ's millennial kingdom.


II.  Fall of the State

            The destiny of international law is necessarily intertwined with the future of the State. Traditionally, international law has been defined as the legal system that governs the relationships between States, or the law of the international community of States. [5] The word State, in this context, is equivalent to country or nation-state, and will be the preferred term in this article. This section begins with a brief description of the role of the State in the current international legal system. The anticipated fall of the State is then analyzed in two parts. The first examines LDS scripture and teachings by early Church leaders regarding the destruction of governments in the last days. The second part describes some of the effects of State failure and offers a perspective on the role of the city of Zion.

            Since the 1648 Peace of Westphalia, States have been the basic units in the world political system. States control the use of force within their borders and are politically sovereign and independent. Although the concept of what entities possess international rights has broadened in recent years, the primary actors in the current international legal system are still the sovereign States. The current international legal system has four traditional requirements for statehood. They are reflected in the 1933 Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States: "The state as a person of international law should possess the following qualifications: (a) a permanent population; (b) a defined territory; (c) government; and (d) capacity to enter into relations with other states." [6] Once a State is established and recognized, it assumes legal benefits such as sovereignty and authority over its territory, status within the international legal system, and the capacity to make international law. [7]


A.  Destruction of Man's Governments

            In The Doctrine and Covenants, the Lord says that the hour is nigh "when peace shall be taken from the earth, and the devil shall have power over his own dominion" (D&C 1:35). John Taylor warned of "a time of terrible trouble and distress, of war and calamity, such as never has been before on the earth." [8] Statements by Orson Pratt reveal his belief that States, or the governments of men, would be destroyed by wars and wickedness during the last days:

[W]hen that time comes, all governments, and systems of government, that have been organized upon this little creation of the Almighty, contrary to the order of heaven, or in other words—all governments that have not been theocratical in their nature, but that have been organized in a greater or less degree by man's wisdom, will be done away. [9]

He also referred to the demise of the State as a preparatory step for the establishment of the kingdom of God:

The Almighty has decreed to rend and break in pieces all earthly governments—to cast down their thrones—to turn and overturn, and break up the nation—to send forth his messengers, and make a way for the establishment of the everlasting kingdom to which all other must yield, or be prostrated never more to rise. [10]

            While these strong statements describe a potential breakup of governments before or at the time of the Second Coming, other teachings and scriptures that use the term "nations" when referring to the time after the last days. For example, describing Christ's millennial reign, John Taylor said, "For it will be the reign of God upon the earth, and he will enforce his laws, and command that obedience from the nations of the world which is legitimately his right." [11] Isaiah also referred to nations during the millennial era saying, "[A]nd they shall beat their swords into plowshares, and their spears into pruninghooks: nation shall not lift up a sword against nation, neither shall they learn war any more" (Isaiah 2:4). On their face, these references may appear to challenge the idea that political States would be destroyed in the last days. Does use of the term "nation" in millennial prophecies mean that political States will continue to exist when Christ governs the earth? No, not necessarily.

            Although an overlap in meaning does occur, nation, as used anciently and in modern times, may not always be the equivalent of State. In his classic legal text, Sir John Salmond defines the term nation as "a group of people bound together by common history, common sentiment and traditions, and, usually ... by common heritage." [12] Salmond continues, "A state, on the other hand, is a society of men united under one government." [13] The terms nation and State are not always interchangeable because political State boundaries do not always align precisely with the boundaries of nations. [14]

            In the scriptures, the term nation can sometimes refer to people, multitudes, or land. [15] For example, when Jesus foretells the calamities that will precede His Second Coming, Matthew records, "For nation shall rise against nation, and kingdom against kingdom: and there shall be famines, and pestilences, and earthquakes, in divers places" (Matthew 24:7). In this scripture, the term most likely referring to the political State or government is kingdom, not nation. When John Taylor says that the Lord will command obedience "from the nations of the world," it is possible that he is referring to nations in this sense of groups bound together by shared history and custom, not necessarily continuing political governments. 

            One of the major legal benefits of statehood is the right to exercise authority and sovereignty over a specific territory. Even if political States were able to remain intact through the wars and destruction of the last days, teachings of early Church leaders about the Millennium seem to leave little room for independent political sovereignty once Christ comes and takes pre-eminence. [16] Modern scripture reiterates that, "[T]he Lord, even the Savior, shall stand in the midst of his people, and shall reign over all flesh" (D&C 133:25). According to John Taylor:

The Lord will be king over all the earth, and all mankind literally under his sovereignty, and every nation under the heavens will have to acknowledge his authority, and bow to his scepter. Those who serve him in righteousness will have communications with God, and with Jesus.… [A]nd other people, who may not yield full obedience to his laws, nor be fully instructed in his covenants, will, nevertheless, have to yield full obedience to his government. For it will be the reign of God upon the earth, and he will enforce his laws, and command that obedience from the nations of the world which is legitimately his right. [17]

           Orson Pratt believed that Christ's millennial government would "govern the whole earth, and bear universal sway." [18] John Taylor again stated, "When the millennium which we have been speaking of is introduced, all potentates, powers, and authorities—every man, woman, and child will be in subjection to the kingdom of God; … then the will of God will be done on the earth as it is done in heaven." [19]

           From these teachings it would appear that any remaining political government would be entirely subject to Christ's sovereignty. In addition to this concept of complete political subjection, Biblical scriptures explain how Christ's authority will be acknowledged by mankind during the Millennium. Paul writes:

Wherefore God also hath highly exalted him, and given him a name which is above every name: That at the name of Jesus every knee should bow, of things in heaven, and things in earth, and things under the earth; And that every tongue should confess that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God the Father (Philippians 2:9-11).

           Brigham Young believed that this obeisance would be required of all individuals. He said, "When all nations are so subdued to Jesus that every knee shall bow and every tongue shall confess, there will still be millions on the earth who will not believe in him; but they will be obliged to acknowledge his kingly government." [20] This type of required acknowledgment would also seem to preclude the possibility that individuals could maintain a separate, independent political State outside the authority of the kingdom of God. It would appear that States could not exist during the Millennium with the same legal rights they enjoy today, even if it were possible for "governments of man" to survive the prophesied wars and destruction of the last days.


B.  Effects of State Failure

            If peace was taken from the earth and wars and wickedness toppled governments, what would be some effects of State failure? In an article for the International Review of the Red Cross, Professor Daniel Thürer explains that States can collapse when internal violence causes the power structures that support law and order to fail. [21] When that happens, police and judicial institutions collapse, governance is paralyzed, and anarchy and chaos reign. From a legal perspective, "it could be said that the 'failed State' is one which, though retaining legal capacity, has for all practical purposes lost the ability to exercise it." [22] Professor Thürer characterizes failed States not only by the collapse of the core of government, but also the brutality and intensity of the violence used. [23] He describes eyewitness reports from a modern failed State which speak of the entire spectrum of society "falling into the grip of a collective insanity following the breakdown of State institutions." [24]

            Several early Church leaders described their view of the last days in terms that seem to resemble the intense and brutal violence of modern State failure. Brigham Young described the last days saying, "Famine will spread over the nations, and nation will rise up against nation, kingdom against kingdom, and states against states, in our own country and in foreign lands; and they will destroy each other, caring not for the blood and lives of their neighbors, of their families, or for their own lives." [25] Orson Pratt also described bloodshed, mobocracy, pillaging, and "war of neighborhood against neighborhood, city against city, town against town, county against county, state against state." [26] Like the intense violence of modern State failure, the violence described in these statements seems to reach across the spectrum of society. While some of the wars and destruction of the last days may lead to the collapse of States, the violence spoken may also be one of the effects of State failure.

            In addition to losing the protection that comes from organized government, another potential effect of State failure is the loss of nationality. In international law, the term nationality is often used synonymously with citizenship. It is a legal bond between the individual and the State, and usually involves allegiance and protection. [27] Internal laws govern how nationality with a particular State is acquired. It may be granted through birth within the State's territory or birth to parents who are nationals. [28] International law recognizes that States have a right to regulate their own citizens, and it gives States the right to pursue claims under international law on behalf of their nationals. [29] The European Convention on Nationality declares that "everyone has the right to a nationality" and "statelessness shall be avoided." [30] A stateless person is someone who has no nationality and therefore no legal right to claim protection from any State. [31] From a view of the last days that is characterized by desolating wars and the destruction of governments, it would seem that the legal principle of nationality would be severely threatened as States collapse. Statelessness would be an unavoidable result for anyone who survived the failure of their government.

            If protection from the political State was lost, where would people turn for safety? As provided by modern and ancient scriptures, one of the places may be Zion. The Lord has said that during the troubled times of the last days, Zion will be "a land of peace, a city of refuge, a place of safety for the saints of the Most High God" (D&C 45:66). The Articles of Faith teach that the city of Zion will be established on the American continent prior to the Second Coming. [32] Wilford Woodruff believed that the city of Zion would be the political kingdom of God on earth and survive the destruction of the governments of man. [33] Lorenzo Snow shared his view of those who come seeking protection:

By and by the nations will be broken up on account of their wickedness … they will destroy themselves with their wickedness and immorality. They will contend and quarrel one with another, state after state and nation after nation, until they are broken up, and thousands, tens of thousands and hundreds of thousands will undoubtedly come and seek protection at the hands of the servants of God. [34]

            Isaiah prophesied that the gates of Zion would be open continuously, day and night, to receive all who would come (Isaiah 60:11). The Lord has said, "... every man that will not take his sword against his neighbor must needs flee unto Zion for safety. And there shall be gathered unto it out of every nation under heaven; and it shall be the only people that shall not be at war one with another" (D&C 45:68-69).

            Early Church leaders taught that all who seek refuge would find it in Zion. Similar to States extending nationality to individuals today, so "all nations are invited to become citizens" of the spiritual and political kingdoms of God. [35] In contrast to membership in the spiritual kingdom of God, what may be thought of as political membership with Zion does not seem to require religious membership in the Lord's church. On multiple occasions, both John Taylor and Brigham Young expressed their belief that differences of religion would exist in Zion during the last days. [36] Speaking of those who would come to Zion seeking refuge, John Taylor stated:

And they will come, saying, we do not know anything of the principles of your religion, but we perceive that you are an honest community; you administer justice and righteousness, and we want to live with you and receive the protection of your laws, but as for your religion we will talk about that some other time. Will we protect such people? Yes, all honorable men. [37]

            While protection in Zion may be offered to all, there appears to be at least one firm requirement for acquiring this membership: "every knee shall bow and every tongue confess to the glory of God the Father that Jesus is the Christ." [38] Brigham Young described this as a literal, physical tribute saying:

They will ask, "If I bow the knee and confess that he is that Saviour, the Christ, to the glory of the Father, will you let me go home and be a Presbyterian?" "Yes." "And not persecute me?" "Never." … "O yes, anything you wish to be, but remember … every knee has got to bow and every tongue confess. When you have paid this tribute to the Most High, who created you and preserves you, you may then go and worship what you please, or do what you please, if you do not infringe upon your neighbors." [39]

These teachings, while admittedly non-doctrinal, seem to indicate that Zion would offer great political protection for those seeking refuge in the last days.

            This section examined what it means to be a State in the current international legal system and discussed teachings of early Church leaders regarding the last days and the Millennium. From this analysis, it seems possible that wars and wickedness would lead to the widespread destruction of governments. If political States fail, people would lose the protection of State institutions as well as the legal bond of nationality. As described in scripture and prophecy, Zion would stand ready to accept all those who would come seeking safety and acknowledge that Jesus is the Christ.


III.  Future of International Law

            The previous section began by describing international law as the law that governs the relationships between States in the international community. In the current international legal system, international law comes from a variety of sources. This section examines those sources and then analyzes the implications of statements by early Church leaders regarding the future of international law in the last days and the Millennium. It then conducts a similar analysis for two specific substantive areas of international law: international human rights law and the law of armed conflict.

A.  Sources of International Law

            The American Law Institute lists three sources of international law: customary international law, international agreements, and rules derived from the general principles of law that are common to major legal systems. [40] International agreements, commonly known as treaties and conventions, are perhaps the most recognized source of international law. A treaty is a written agreement that is formally signed, ratified, or adhered to by two or more States. [41] Treaties create international law and legal obligations for the States that are parties to them. [42] For example, the North Atlantic Treaty (NATO Treaty) is only binding on States that are a party to it.   

            Customary international law, on the other hand, is created when general and consistent State practice is followed out of a sense of legal obligation. [43] This sense of legal obligation is a vital element and typically referred to by the Latin phrase opinio juris. Customary international law is only formed from those State practices that are motivated by a sense of legal obligation. [44] When opinio juris is lacking, the State practice may just be an act motivated out of courtesy or convenience. International law considers "State practice" to include both physical and verbal acts. [45] An example of a norm of customary international law is the practice of granting immunity to visiting foreign heads of State.

            International agreements and customary international law sometimes interact with each other. Existing customary law is sometimes codified into international agreements, and international agreements sometimes lead to the creation of new norms of customary international law. [46] For example, when a particular treaty provision becomes widely accepted and adhered to by States out of a sense of legal duty, the rule can pass into the general body of international law. [47] When that occurs, the customary norm would then bind States that were never parties to the original treaty. This is what occurred with the provisions of the Geneva Conventions of 1949. Before they became universally signed, the provisions came to be viewed as norms of customary international law that bound all States, even non-signatories. [48]

            In addition to treaties and customary international law, general principles of law may act as a supplemental source of international law. International Law scholar Oscar Schachter describes several categories of these general principles. [49] He includes principles of municipal law, principles "intrinsic to the idea of law and basic to all legal systems," and ideas "derived from the specific natures of the international community". [50] Schachter also included societal principles and those principles of justice which are founded on "the very nature of man as a rational and social being." [51] International courts have added humanitarian principles and the concepts of equity and proportionality to the list of general principles of law. [52]

            Some rules of international law are considered so fundamental that no State is exempt from following them. These are called peremptory norms, or jus cogens, which is Latin for "compelling law." [53] The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties describes peremptory norms as "a norm accepted and recognized by the international community of States as a whole as a norm from which no derogation is permitted." [54] There is no definitive list of the peremptory norms of international law, but most lists include prohibitions on piracy, slavery, and genocide. [55]

            An analysis of the possible future of these varied sources of international law in the last days is informed by an understanding of how the international legal system terminates international law today.  The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties discusses how a treaty may be terminated. [56] A State can withdraw or terminate by following a procedure outlined for doing so, or by getting unanimous consent from all of the other contracting States. [57] A treaty between multiple States remains intact even if several withdraw and it has fewer remaining than was initially required to enter the agreement into force. [58] A material breach of a treaty does not automatically destroy it. In a bilateral treaty, a material breach gives the other State grounds for terminating the agreement either in whole or in part. [59] In a multilateral treaty, a material breach by one State gives the other States grounds to do three things. The remaining States can either suspend the treaty in whole or in part, terminate it between themselves and the breaching State, or terminate it among all of them. [60]

            The current international legal system, then, seems to provide multiple avenues to keep international agreements in force even when States withdraw or breach them. Those measures may not be sufficient, however, to keep treaties viable during the type of wars and destruction that have been described in the last days. In the end, international agreements may be only as strong as the States that create them. As previously mentioned, treaties are only binding on States that are parties to them. At some point, if most or all of the States that were parties to an agreement were no longer viable States, the treaty would probably fail. Based on what the early Church leaders described would happen in the last days, the international community of States may well experience State failure on a massive scale. It is possible that widespread State failure would destroy international agreements as a source of international law. Even if some international agreements survived as a source of law until the Millennium, it would appear that there would be no independent political States once Christ institutes His universal reign. If that is the case, then there may not be a need for international agreements once Christ returns.

            In contrast to international agreements, norms of customary international law may fare better during the last days because they are not easily created or destroyed. Under the current international legal system, if a State decides to change its practice away from an accepted customary norm, it would be seen as violating customary international law. However, if similar violations were made by several States out of sense of legal obligation, it may be possible to create a new norm that would modify or replace the old rule. [61] In international law there is not a particular number of States that are required to change their State practice to create new customary international law, it just requires that the practice be done by enough States to make it a "general practice," possibly to the point of being "widespread and representative." [62]  

            If the international community of States is broken up by wars and wickedness in the last days, customary international law could theoretically survive so long as at least one viable State remained. Of course, if there was only one State in the international community, there would probably be no need or opportunity to employ a particular customary law. But theoretically, customary international law would not be destroyed simply because other States in the system collapsed. For this reason, it is possible that norms of customary international law could survive the collapse of the international community of States. But as with international agreements, once the Millennium begins there may not be a continuing need for customary international law.

            While it seems there may not be need for treaties or customary international law during the Millennium, statements from early Church leaders appear to indicate there could be a place for international law's general principles of law and peremptory norms. Joseph Smith stated that when Christ comes "anarchy and confusion will be destroyed." [63] If anarchy is destroyed that implies a system of order and authority. John Taylor believed that, "The kingdom of God will establish truth and correct principles—the principles of truth, equity, and justice; in short, the principles that emanate from God, principles that are calculated to elevate man in time and through all eternity. How shall this be? It will be by a legitimate rule, authority, and dominion." [64] Brigham Young likewise described the whole human family protected by laws, "This kingdom will circumscribe them all and will issue laws and ordinances to protect them in their rights—every right that every people, sect and person can enjoy, and the full liberty that God has granted to them without molestation." [65]

            From these statements, it appears that some of international law's general principles of law and peremptory norms may continue to be sources of law during the Millennium. This may be possible because some of those norms already appear to coincide with principles that emanate from God. For example, principles intrinsic to the idea of law, humanitarian principles, and principles of society and justice could be easily incorporated into the principles of truth, equity, and justice that were mentioned by John Taylor. Additionally, peremptory norms that prohibit slavery and genocide could be considered principles that emanate from God. Aside from these norms and general principles, however, it seems improbable that treaties and customary international law would continue to function as sources of law during Christ's millennial reign.

            This section examined the main sources of international law in the current international legal system. Transitioning away from sources, the following section will analyze international human rights law and the law of armed conflict and theorize about the possible future of these specific substantive areas of law during the last days and the Millennium.


B.  Substantive Areas of International Law

1.  International human rights law

            The second half of the twentieth century has been described as the "Age of Rights." [66] Following the Second World War, issues of human rights began to move beyond the national level and become a subject of international law and concern. [67] The Charter of the United Nations lists "promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion" as one of its purposes and principles. [68] This means that States assume some general international obligations regarding human rights when they join the United Nations. [69] In 1948, the United Nations defined and codified some human rights in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. [70] This declaration is not a treaty, but was introduced as a nonbinding resolution by the General Assembly. [71]   Two main human rights treaties are the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR). As treaty agreements, these covenants are binding international law on the States that are parties to them. As of early 2009, 162 States had become parties to the ICCPR and 159 States were parties to the ICESCR. [72] Together with the United Nations Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, these international agreements constitute what is known as the International Bill of Rights. [73]

            The International Bill of Rights addresses numerous types of human rights. For example, the Universal Declaration speaks of all people being free and equal in their dignity and rights, including having the right to life, liberty, and the security of person. [74] It mentions freedom from slavery and torture, the right to equal protection of the law, and even the right to a nationality. [75] Like the Universal Declaration, the ICCPR declares to every human being the right to life, liberty, and security of person. [76] It also guarantees, "Everyone shall have the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion." [77] The ICESCR obligates States to recognize the right to work, the right of everyone to adequate food, clothing and housing, education, and the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health. [78]

            What might happen to international human rights law during the last days and the Millennium? From all that has been said about the wars and wickedness of the last days, it seems possible that international human rights law would become increasingly weakened as people lose the protection of organized government. From descriptions of Zion by early Church leaders, it appears that Zion would be a bastion of human rights protection. John Taylor believed that Zion would offer liberty, equal rights, and fellowship to the world. [79] As he described his view of the blessings of life in Zion, it would appear to be a realization of many of the economic, social, and cultural rights discussed in the ICESCR:

We believe that this people will excel in literature, in science and the arts and in manufactures. In fact, there will be a concentration of wisdom, … and we shall have eventually, when the Lord's purposes are carried out, the most magnificent buildings, the most pleasant and beautiful gardens, the richest and most costly clothing, and be the most healthy and the most intellectual people that will reside upon the earth. [80]

            In addition to the social and cultural life in Zion, early Church leaders also taught of commitments to freedom of conscience and individual rights. Brigham Young stated that the kingdom of God would not compel anyone to go contrary to their conscience. [81] This commitment to freedom of conscience is very similar to the provision found in the ICCPR. Brigham Young also spoke of his view that Christ's government would not be tyrannical or oppressive and would protect freedom of thought and religion. [82] Speaking of religious freedom, he said:

When the Kingdom of God is fully set up and established on the face of the earth, and takes the pre-eminence over all other nations and kingdoms, it will protect the people in the enjoyment of all their rights, no matter what they believe, what they profess, or what they worship. If they wish to worship a god of their own workmanship, instead of the true and living God, all right, if they will mind their own business and let other people alone. [83]

            Early Church leaders also taught that, at least at the beginning of the Millennium, there would be individuals who were not members of Christ's church on the earth. Joseph Fielding Smith explained, "These people will be subject to the political government, even though they are not members of the ecclesiastical kingdom which is the Church." [84] Brigham Young taught that all people, regardless of belief, would be protected in their individual rights during the Millennium. [85] "[T]he kingdom of God, when it is established and bears rule, will defend the Methodists in their rights just as much as Latter-day Saints, but it will not allow them to infringe upon the right of their neighbors; this will be prohibited." [86]

            In addition to ensuring freedom of religion, Brigham Young believed that the millennial government of Christ would have municipal laws "designed for the protection of all classes of people in their legitimate rights." [87] This would include the enjoyment of legal rights, and all religious and social rights. [88] "Whoever lives to see the kingdom of God fully established upon the earth will see a government that will protect every person in his rights…. [Y]ou would see … every class of worshippers most strictly protected in all their municipal rights and in the privilege of worshipping who, what, and when they pleased, not infringing upon the rights of others." [89]

            Prior to Christ's millennial reign, it appears that international human rights law may be severely challenged. It is possible that wickedness and State failure would lead to massive suffering and human rights abuse. As early Church leaders describe the city of Zion and the Millennium, however, it appears that many of the principles embodied in this substantive area of international law will be protected. The Millennium, it seems, will be an unprecedented age in the protection of global human rights.

2. Law of armed conflict

            The law of armed conflict, also known as international humanitarian law, is the body of law that regulates the conduct of armed hostilities among States. This substantive area of international law includes the four Geneva Conventions of 1949, as well as other international agreements and norms of customary international law. The law of armed conflict seeks to protect victims of armed conflict and restrict the means and methods of warfare. [90] It represents a balance between humanitarian concerns and the military requirements of States. [91] Deviations from the law of armed conflict, particularly the humanitarian laws, are considered violations of international law. [92]

            Under the law of armed conflict, two guiding principles regulate the conduct of armed hostilities: military necessity and humanity. Military necessity "permits a belligerent to apply only that degree and kind of regulated force, not otherwise prohibited by the laws of war, required for the partial or complete submission of the enemy with the least possible expenditure of time, life, and physical resources." [93] This principle embodies an obligation to ensure that the death and destruction inflicted is never more than what is necessary to defeat the enemy. The second guiding principle, humanity, acts as a counter-balance to the necessities of war and "prohibits the employment of any kind or degree of force not necessary for the purpose of the war." [94] This represents an obligation to limit the suffering associated with armed conflict.

            Keeping these guiding principles in mind, how might the law of armed conflict fare in the last days and the Millennium? In the first section of The Doctrine and Covenants, the Lord warns of the day when peace will be taken from the earth. He describes it as a time when "the devil shall have power over his own dominion" (D&C 1:35). Orson Pratt spoke about the kind of wars he believed would come before the Second Coming. He described them as desolating wars that would leave cities without inhabitants and nations in waste:

Not only this but many other cities will be burned; for when contending armies are wrought up with terrible anger, without the Spirit of God upon them, when they have not that spirit of humanity that now characterizes many of the wars amongst the nations, when they are left to themselves, there will be no quarter given, no prisoners taken, but a war of destruction, of desolation, of the burning of the cities and villages, until the land is laid desolate. [95]

            In this view of war, the principle of humanity seems to have given way to military necessity. Without an obligation to limit suffering, armies would appear to accomplish their military aims at any cost, leading to unprecedented destruction and desolation.

            While wars and wickedness seem to characterize the last days, Isaiah describes a very different picture of the beginning of the Millennium. He prophesies that "nation shall not lift up sword against nation, neither shall they learn war any more" (Isaiah 2:4). While we do not know the duration of the time period separating these events, after all that has been said of the last days, one may wonder how the laws that govern war could ever become unnecessary. LDS scripture teaches that in large measure the peace of the Millennium will come from Satan being bound (D&C 88:110). The writings of Moses explain that wars and bloodshed were introduced into the world by Satan: "And in those days Satan had great dominion among men, and raged in their hearts; and from thenceforth came wars and bloodshed; and a man’s hand was against his own brother, in administering death, because of secret works, seeking for power" (Moses 6:15). At the beginning of the Millennium, however, Satan will be bound and the Lord has said that "in that day Satan shall not have power to tempt any man" (D&C 101:28). When Satan is bound, the earth will enjoy a millennial period of peace.

            According to The Doctrine and Covenants, the only conflict that occurs begins after Satan is loosed. At the end of the Millennium, the scriptures say that men will again begin to deny God (D&C 29:22). Once men begin to deny God, the devil "shall be loosed for a little season, that he may gather together his armies. And Michael … shall gather together his armies, even the hosts of heaven. And the devil shall gather together his armies; even the hosts of hell, and shall come up to battle against Michael and his armies. And then cometh the battle of the great God" (D&C 88:111-114). This "battle of the great God" describes a time for gathering armies, but it is not clear if the battle will involve physical warfare or be strictly spiritual in nature. Regardless of the nature of the battle, the scriptures teach that Christ will ultimately defeat Satan, and righteousness and truth will triumph. The Lord declares that He retains all power, "even to the destroying of Satan and his works at the end of the world" (D&C 19:3). This last battle will have unprecedented finality as Satan and his armies are "cast away into their own place, that they shall not have power over the saints any more at all" (D&C 88:114).

            The last days are characterized by war, but the Millennium will be a time of peace. It is possible that during the last days the laws of armed conflict may be abandoned as desolating wars rage across the earth. By the time of the Millennium, however, there will be no more war. When there is no war there will be no need to regulate the conduct of armed hostilities. During the Millennium, then, it seems that whatever may have remained of the law of armed conflict would be unnecessary as Satan is bound and the world enjoys peace.

 

            This section examined sources of international law and two of its substantive areas. During the last days, it is possible that massive State failure would destroy international agreements and threaten customary international law. Laws based on peremptory norms and general legal principles could continue into the Millennium insofar as they coincide with true and correct principles that emanate from God. Like the law of armed conflict, international human rights law would appear to be severely infringed during the violence of the last days. During this time of great human tragedy, Zion would be a land of refuge, peace, and protection of rights. As early Church leaders describe Christ's millennial government, it seems that it will ensure peace and rights protection worldwide. The laws that govern armed conflict would no longer be needed as the nations had no more war.

                       

IV.  Millennial Government of Christ

            The previous sections described the possible fall of the current international legal system during the last days. It seems that during the Millennium, the fallen legal system would be completely replaced by the fully-established kingdom of God. Brigham Young stated that this political government of God would grow out of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, but would not be the Church. [96] This section examines how early Church leaders described their views of Christ's millennial government. It reviews their teachings in three parts, roughly corresponding to the legislative, executive, and judicial functions of government.

A.  Legislative Functions of Government

            The Lord has declared that He will make laws and be the ultimate lawgiver. "Wherefore, hear my voice and follow me, and you shall be a free people, and ye shall have no laws but my laws when I come, for I am your lawgiver, and what can stay my hand?" (D&C 38:22). Likewise, Orson Pratt taught that laws would come from Christ himself in the government of God: "In all human governments every law is made by the legal law-making department, or else it is of no force, and the people are not bound by it. So in the kingdom of God, all laws must come from the Great Law-giver, or else they are of no force, and the people are under no obligations to obey them." [97]        

            Even with Christ as the ultimate lawgiver, Orson Pratt believed that a type of legislative body would also exist within Christ's millennial government. He described his view of the possible process for the publication of laws:

The law for the government of all nations will go forth from Zion the same as the laws for the government of the United States now go forth from Washington. Zion will be the seat of government, and her officers will be far more respected, and have far more influence, than those of any government upon the earth; all nations will yield the most perfect obedience to their commands and counsels. [98]

Similarly, Brigham Young seems to assert there would be legislators during the Millennium. He made the following statement about potential officers in the political kingdom of God:

[T]hat Kingdom grows out of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, but it is not the Church, for a man may be a legislator in that body which will issue laws to sustain the inhabitants of the earth in their individual rights, and still not belong to the Church of Jesus Christ at all. And further, though a man may not even believe in any religion, it would be perfectly right, when necessary, to give him the privilege of holding a seat among that body which will make laws to govern all the nations of the earth and control those who make no profession of religion at all; for that body would be governed, controlled, and dictated to acknowledge others in those rights which they wish to enjoy themselves. [99]

            It would appear, then, that both Orson Pratt and Brigham Young believed Christ's millennial government would include some structure for legislating laws.

B.  Executive Functions of Government

            It is possible that the Lord may use officers to execute the law in His government during the Millennium. As Brigham Young stated, these administrators would be as numerous as required by the people: "When the government of God is in force upon the earth, there will be many officers and branches to that government, as there now are to that of the United States. There will be such helps, governments, [et]c., as the people require in their several capacities and circumstances; for the Lord will not administer everywhere in person." [100] Joseph Fielding Smith, while describing how those who would not be members of Christ's church would be governed, referred to some of their officers as "elected." "[D]uring the millennium, the multitudes upon the face of the earth who are not in the Church will have to be governed, and many of their officers, who will be elected, may not be members of the Church." [101]

            Regarding the character of these officers, Brigham Young taught that, "Every man that officiates in a public capacity will be filled with the Spirit of God, with the light of God, with the power of God, and will understand right from wrong, truth from error, light from darkness, that which tends to life and that which tends to death." [102] Orson Pratt also explained his view of the role of officers in the government of God:

The Lord says, concerning Zion, "And I will restore thy judges as at the first, and thy counselors as at the beginning: afterward thou shalt be called The city of righteousness—the faithful city." (Isaiah 1:26.) "I will also make thy officers peace, and thine exactors righteousness." (Isaiah 60:17.) When the Lord restores the judges, counselors and officers of Zion, after the same order as in the ancient Zion, or among Israel, He will choose good and righteous men who can be entrusted to direct the governmental affairs of every nation under heaven, who will see that the laws issued from Zion are properly respected and obeyed. [103]

            Remarkably, Orson Pratt taught that executing the law in Christ's millennial government may involve some celestial, resurrected beings. When describing the Millennium and resurrected persons he said:

In the resurrection, they will come forth immortal, eternal, clothed upon with the fullness of that glory that pertains to the celestial kingdom. They will also reign as kings and priests here on the earth. To some of the raised Saints there will be given ten cities to rule over. To others there will be given five cities to rule over, according to their works here in this life. [104]

            However Christ may execute His laws during the Millennium, several early Church leaders seemed to believe that righteous officers of various types would be utilized.

C. Judicial Functions of Government

            In addition to legislating and executing the law, early Church leaders also taught that Christ's millennial government would have a type of legal system to manage those who would transgress the law. Brigham Young mentioned the need for a system of courts, at least initially, within the political kingdom of God:

We shall be under the necessity of having courts organized, unless all are in the Lord and all walk in his way; if that were the case I do not know that we should want any sheriff, marshals, constables, magistrates, jurors, judges or governors, because the word of the Lord would govern and control every person; but until that time arrives we shall want officers so that we will be prepared to reckon with the transgressor, and we shall have transgressors in building the kingdom, for it will be some time yet before all are in the Lord. [105]

Brigham Young continued to say that political and municipal organizations would be required to govern those who were unfamiliar with the ways of God. [106] According to his view, the kingdom of God, "when organized upon the earth, will have every officer, law and ordinance necessary for the managing of those who are unruly, or who transgress its laws, and to govern those who desire to do right, but can not quite walk to the line." [107] Brigham Young taught that both before and after the coming of Christ the government of God would have the necessary organization to manage those who transgressed the law.  

            Several early Church leaders taught that obedience to Christ's laws would be required during the Millennium. They used scriptures and strong metaphors to explain that disobedience during Christ's reign would not be tolerated. For example, Orson Pratt taught, "In that kingdom, when its laws go forth, there will be officers of peace, and they will lay judgment to the line, and the axe will be laid to the root of every tree that will not yield fruit, and it will be hewn down and cast into the fire, and be utterly burnt up." [108] Speaking of groups collectively, Orson Pratt said, "In Zion a law will be given by the Great Law Giver, which will be for the government of all nations; and all nations will have to submit to that law, or be destroyed from the earth: for the 'Lord will rebuke strong nations afar off.'" [109] John Taylor also described the potential consequences of disobedience saying, "[The Lord] will issue his commands, and they must be obeyed; and if the nations of the earth observe not his laws, 'they will have no rain.' … [F]or the Lord will demand obedience, and the Scriptures say, time and time again, that the wicked shall be rooted out of the land, and the righteous and the meek shall inherit the earth." [110]

            When Christ comes to reign during the Millennium, His kingdom will fill the entire earth. The teachings of early Church leaders seem to demonstrate that political structures within that government would exist to legislate and execute His laws, as well as judge the disobedient.


V. Conclusion

            This article has examined the teachings of early Church leaders and LDS scripture to theorize about the future of international law and describe a possible structure of Christ's millennial government. Viewed from their perspective of wars and destruction, it appears that the current international legal system would not survive the turmoil of the last days. Wars and wickedness would likely cause governments within the international community of States to fail. It is possible that this widespread State failure would bring down major sources and substantive areas of international law. When Christ returns, the political kingdom of God would rise from Zion to fill the whole earth. During the Millennium, Christ's government would protect the rights of all mankind. Laws would be executed in righteousness, and the world would finally know peace. While this vision of Christ's ultimate millennial reign may not be doctrinal or authoritative, these teachings do inspire courage and confidence as we seek to prepare the world for the great return of its Lord and King.

 

NOTES

[1] Joseph Smith, "The Government of God," Times & Seasons, 15 July 1842, 856-857. [Back to manuscript].

[2] Daniel H. Ludlow, ed. Encyclopedia of Mormonism, (New York: Macmillan Publishing, 1992), s.v. "Millennium." [Back to manuscript].

[3] Articles of Faith 1:10, "We believe in the literal gathering of Israel and in the restoration of the Ten Tribes; that Zion (the New Jerusalem) will be built upon the American continent; that Christ will reign personally upon the earth; and, that the earth will be renewed and receive its paradisiacal glory." [Back to manuscript].

[4] See John Taylor, The Government of God (Liverpool: S. W. Richards, 1852), 86. [Back to manuscript].

[5] Black's Law Dictionary, 9th ed., s.v. "international law." [Back to manuscript].

[6] "Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States," 26 December 1933, 165 L.N.T.S. 19, art. 1. [Back to manuscript].

[7] Restatement (Third) of Foreign Law of the United States (American Law Institute, 1987), § 206. [Back to manuscript].

[8] Taylor, The Government of God, 101. [Back to manuscript].

[9] Orson Pratt, in Journal of Discourses, 26 vols. (Liverpool: F. D. and S. W. Richards, 1854-86), 3:70, July 8, 1855. [Back to manuscript].

[10] Orson Pratt, The Kingdom of God: Part IV, vol. 2 of Orson Pratt's Works (Orem, UT: Grandin Book Company, 1990), 16. [Back to manuscript].

[11] Taylor, The Government of God, 87-88. [Back to manuscript].

[12] John W. Salmond, Jurisprudence, ed. Glanville L. Williams, 10th ed. (London: Sweet and Maxwell, 1947), 136. [Back to manuscript].

[13] Salmond, Jurisprudence, 136. [Back to manuscript].

[14] See Salmond, Jurisprudence, 136. [Back to manuscript].

[15] See Genesis 12:2. [Back to manuscript].

[16] See Brigham Young, in Journal of Discourses, 2:310, July 8, 1855; and Joseph Fielding Smith, Doctrines of Salvation, ed. Bruce R. McConkie, vol. 1 (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1954), 229. [Back to manuscript].

[17] Taylor, The Government of God, 87-88. [Back to manuscript].

[18] Orson Pratt, in Journal of Discourses, 3:71, July 8, 1855. [Back to manuscript].

[19] John Taylor, in Journal of Discourses, 6:25, November 1, 1857. [Back to manuscript].

[20] Brigham Young, in Journal of Discourses, 7:142, May 22, 1859. [Back to manuscript].

[21] Daniel Thürer, "The 'Failed State' and International Law," International Review of the Red Cross no. 836, 31 December 1999, <http://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/misc/57jq6u.htm> (21 January 2012). [Back to manuscript].

[22] Thürer, "The 'Failed State' and International Law." [Back to manuscript].

[23] Thürer, "The 'Failed State' and International Law." [Back to manuscript].

[24] Thürer, "The 'Failed State' and International Law." [Back to manuscript].

[25] Brigham Young, in Journal of Discourses, 8:123, July 15, 1860 (spelling modernized). [Back to manuscript].

[26] Orson Pratt, in Journal of Discourses, 20:151, March 9, 1879. [Back to manuscript].

[27] Black's Law Dictionary, 9th ed., s.v. "nationality." [Back to manuscript].

[28] Lori F. Damrosch, et al. eds. International Law: Cases and Materials, 5th ed. (St. Paul: West, 2009), 458. [Back to manuscript].

[29] Damrosch, International Law, 458. [Back to manuscript].

[30] "European Convention of Nationality," 6 November 1997, E.T.S. No. 166, art. 4. [Back to manuscript].

[31] Damrosch, International Law, 460. [Back to manuscript].

[32] See Articles of Faith 1:10; See also Encyclopedia of Mormonism, s.v. "New Jerusalem." [Back to manuscript].

[33] See Wilford Woodruff, in Journal of Discourses, 13:164, December 12, 1869. [Back to manuscript].

[34] Lorenzo Snow, in Journal of Discourses, 14:309, January 14, 1872.[Back to manuscript].

[35] Pratt, The Kingdom of God: Part IV, 16. [Back to manuscript].

[36] See John Taylor, in Journal of Discourses, 21:8, August 31, 1879, and Brigham Young, in Journal of Discourses, 2:189, February 18, 1855; and 2:316-17, July 8, 1855. [Back to manuscript].

[37] John Taylor, in Journal of Discourses, 21:8, August 31, 1879. [Back to manuscript].

[38] Brigham Young, in Journal of Discourses, 12:274, August 16, 1868. [Back to manuscript].

[39] Brigham Young, in Journal of Discourses, 2:317, July 8, 1855. [Back to manuscript].

[40] Restatement (Third) of Foreign Law of the United States, § 102(1). [Back to manuscript].

[41] Black's Law Dictionary, 9th ed., s.v. "treaty." [Back to manuscript].

[42] Restatement (Third) of Foreign Law of the United States, § 102(3). [Back to manuscript].

[43] Restatement (Third) of Foreign Law of the United States, § 102(2). [Back to manuscript].

[44] Damrosch, International Law, 93. [Back to manuscript].

[45] Damrosch, International Law, 78. [Back to manuscript].

[46] Restatement (Third) of Foreign Law of the United States, § 102(3). [Back to manuscript].

[47] See "North Sea Continental Shelf Cases (Germany v. Denmark; Germany v. Netherlands)," 20 February 1969, 1969 I.C.J. 3, ¶ 71. [Back to manuscript].

[48] See <http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/WebSign?ReadForm&id=375&ps=P> for a complete list of State parties to the Geneva Conventions (21 January 2012). [Back to manuscript].

[49] See Damrosch, International Law, 238. [Back to manuscript].

[50] Damrosch, International Law, 238.[Back to manuscript].

[51] Damrosch, International Law, 238. [Back to manuscript].

[52] See Damrosch, International Law, 247. [Back to manuscript].

[53] Black's Law Dictionary, 9th ed., s.v. "jus cogens." [Back to manuscript].

[54] "Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties," 23 May 1969, 8 I.L.M. 679, art. 53. [Back to manuscript].

[55] Damrosch, International Law, 108. [Back to manuscript].

[56] See "Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties," 23 May 1969, 8 I.L.M. 679, Part V. [Back to manuscript].

[57] "Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties," 23 May 1969, 8 I.L.M. 679, art. 54, 57. [Back to manuscript].

[58] "Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties," 23 May 1969, 8 I.L.M. 679, art. 55. [Back to manuscript].

[59] See "Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties," 23 May 1969, 8 I.L.M. 679, art. 60(1). [Back to manuscript].

[60] "Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties," 23 May 1969, 8 I.L.M. 679, art. 60(2)(a). [Back to manuscript].

[61] Damrosch, International Law, 104. [Back to manuscript].

[62] Damrosch, International Law, 59. [Back to manuscript].

[63] Smith, "The Government of God," 856. [Back to manuscript].

[64] John Taylor, in Journal of Discourses, 1:229, April 8, 1853. [Back to manuscript].

[65] Brigham Young, in Journal of Discourses, 17:156, August 9, 1874. [Back to manuscript].

[66] Damrosch, International Law, 956.[Back to manuscript].

[67] Damrosch, International Law, 956. [Back to manuscript].

[68] U.N. Charter art. 1(3). [Back to manuscript].

[69] Damrosch, International Law, 958. [Back to manuscript].

[70] Damrosch, International Law, 958. [Back to manuscript].

[71] Damrosch, International Law, 977. [Back to manuscript].

[72] Damrosch, International Law, 978-79. [Back to manuscript].

[73] Damrosch, International Law, 958. [Back to manuscript].

[74] "Universal Declaration of Human Rights," 10 December 1948, G.A. Res. 217, U.N. GAOR, art. 1, 3. [Back to manuscript].

[75] "Universal Declaration of Human Rights," 10 December 1948, G.A. Res. 217, U.N. GAOR, art. 4, 5, 7, 15. [Back to manuscript].

[76] "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights," 16 December 1966, 6 I.L.M. 368, art. 6, 9. [Back to manuscript].

[77] "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights," 16 December 1966, 6 I.L.M. 368, art. 18(1). [Back to manuscript].

[78] "International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights," 16 December 1966, 6 I.L.M. 360, art. 6(1), 11(1), 12(1), 13(1). [Back to manuscript].

[79] See John Taylor, in Journal of Discourses, 21:8, August 31, 1879. [Back to manuscript].

[80] John Taylor, in Journal of Discourses, 10:147, April 6, 1863. [Back to manuscript].

[81] Brigham Young, in Journal of Discourses, 17:157, August 9, 1874. [Back to manuscript].

[82] See Brigham Young, in Journal of Discourses, 6:346, July 31, 1859. [Back to manuscript].

[83] Brigham Young, in Journal of Discourses, 2:310, July 8, 1855. [Back to manuscript].

[84] Smith, Doctrines of Salvation, 229 (italics in original). [Back to manuscript].

[85] See Brigham Young, in Journal of Discourses, 2:309, July 8, 1855. [Back to manuscript].

[86] Brigham Young, in Journal of Discourses, 17:156, August 9, 1874. [Back to manuscript].

[87] Brigham Young, in Journal of Discourses, 6:345, July 31, 1859. [Back to manuscript].

[88] See Brigham Young, in Journal of Discourses, 17:157, August 9, 1874; and 6:343, July 31, 1859. [Back to manuscript].

[89] Brigham Young, in Journal of Discourses, 6:342-343, July 31, 1859. [Back to manuscript].

[90] Advisory Service on International Humanitarian Law, "What is International Humanitarian Law?" International Committee of the Red Cross, July 2004, <http://www.icrc.org/eng/assets/files/other/what_is_ihl.pdf> (15 November 2012). [Back to manuscript].

[91] Advisory Service, "What is International Humanitarian Law?" [Back to manuscript].

[92] Damrosch, International Law, 1276. [Back to manuscript].

[93] Geoffrey S. Corn, et al. The Law of Armed Conflict: An Operational Approach (New York: Wolters Kluwer Law & Business, 2012), 112. [Back to manuscript].

[94] Corn, The Law of Armed Conflict, 112. [Back to manuscript].

[95] Orson Pratt, in Journal of Discourses, 20:150-151, March 9, 1879. [Back to manuscript].

[96] See Brigham Young, in Journal of Discourses, 2:310, July 8, 1855. [Back to manuscript].

[97] Orson Pratt, The Kingdom of God: Part III, vol. 2 of Orson Pratt's Works (Orem, UT: Grandin Book Company, 1990), 6. [Back to manuscript].

[98] Orson Pratt, "Latter-day Zion," Seer, May 1854, 266. [Back to manuscript].

[99] Brigham Young, in Journal of Discourses, 2:310, July 8, 1855. [Back to manuscript].

[100] Brigham Young, in Journal of Discourses, 6:346, July 31, 1859. [Back to manuscript].

[101] Smith, Doctrines of Salvation, 230 (italics in original). [Back to manuscript].

[102] Brigham Young, in Journal of Discourses, 6:345, July 31, 1859. [Back to manuscript].

[103] Pratt, "Latter-day Zion," 266. [Back to manuscript].

[104] Orson Pratt, in Journal of Discourses, 20:155, March 9, 1879. [Back to manuscript].

[105] Brigham Young, in Journal of Discourses, 15:161, October 9, 1872. [Back to manuscript].

[106] Brigham Young, in Journal of Discourses, 15:161, October 9, 1872. [Back to manuscript].

[107] Brigham Young, in Journal of Discourses, 15:161, October 9, 1872. [Back to manuscript].

[108] Orson Pratt, in Journal of Discourses, 3:73, July 8, 1855. [Back to manuscript].

[109] Pratt, "Latter-day Zion," 266. [Back to manuscript].

[110] Taylor, The Government of God, 104. [Back to manuscript].

 



Full Citation for this Article: Arnold, Allison (2013) "And they shall beat their swords into plowshares": International Law in the Last Days," SquareTwo, Vol. 6. No. 2 (Summer), http://squaretwo.org/Sq2ArticleArnoldLawLastDays.html, <give access date>

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